Magnetic Tape Industry

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Recommended soundtrack: Give me some lovin’, Blues Brothers

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The Emergence and Evolution of the Magnetic Tape Industry

The magnetic tape industry has its roots in the late 19th century when American engineer Oberlin Smith proposed the idea of using magnetic media to capture audio in 1878.

Smith's ideas were published in an article in the Electrical World magazine a decade later, in 1888. However, it wasn't until 1898 that Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen patented the Telegraphone, a steel wire recorder, which was unveiled at the Paris Exposition in 1900.

A major breakthrough in magnetic recording technology came in 1921 when W.L. Carlson and G.W. Carpenter at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory discovered the use of AC bias, which significantly improved the quality of magnetic recordings.

The stage was set for the development of magnetic tape when Austrian inventor Fritz Pfleumer conceived the idea of using magnetic coatings for recording after his work with cigarette filters in 1927. Pfleumer patented the use of magnetic coatings for recording (DRP 649 408 Magnetogrammträger) in 1933, the same year that Eduard Schüller at AEG patented the ring magnetic head design used in tape recorders.

In 1935, AEG publicly presented the K1 Magnetophon, the first fully functional magnetic tape recorder. This was followed by Walter Weber's rediscovery and optimization of AC bias for magnetic recording in 1941 while working at RRG (German Broadcast Company). RRG, in collaboration with AEG, went on to make some of the earliest stereo recordings using AC bias and the Magnetophon in 1942.

The magnetic tape industry continued to evolve with the introduction of new tape formulations and base materials. In the 1950s, polyester (Mylar) tape replaced acetate tape as the preferred base material for magnetic tape, offering improved durability and longevity. Another significant advancement came in the 1960s with the emergence of chromium dioxide (CrO2) tape, which offered improved performance over the previously dominant ferric oxide tape.

The development of magnetic tape recording revolutionized the audio industry and paved the way for various applications, including music recording, video recording, and data storage. Despite the advent of digital recording technologies, magnetic tape remained an important medium for several decades, and its impact on the evolution of audio and data storage technologies cannot be overstated.

The magnetic tape industry's success can be attributed to the contributions of numerous inventors, researchers, and companies who pushed the boundaries of what was possible with magnetic recording technology. From Oberlin Smith's initial idea to the introduction of AC bias, ring magnetic heads, and new tape formulations, each advancement built upon the previous one, driving the industry forward and enabling new applications and innovations.

Recommended soundtrack: The Wandering Gustav

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Gustav Amstutz

The Pioneer of Iron Oxide Magnetic Recording
Gustav Amstutz, a German-American inventor and engineer, played a pivotal role in the development of modern magnetic recording technology and the subsequent emergence of the magnetic tape industry. His groundbreaking work with iron oxide particles laid the foundation for the creation of magnetic tape, a medium that revolutionized data storage and processing.

Early Life and Career

Gustav Amstutz was born in 1888 in Zurich, Switzerland. He studied engineering and physics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich) and later immigrated to the United States in the early 1920s. After working for several companies, including General Electric and RCA, Amstutz joined the research team at the Armour Research Foundation (later renamed Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute) in 1933.

Iron Oxide Magnetic Recording

It was during his time at the Armour Research Foundation that Amstutz made his most significant contribution to the field of magnetic recording. In the early 1930s, the existing magnetic recording media, such as steel wire and steel tape, had several limitations, including low recording density, poor signal-to-noise ratio, and limited durability.
Amstutz recognized the potential of using iron oxide particles as a magnetic recording medium.

Unlike steel, iron oxide particles could be dispersed in a binder and coated onto a flexible substrate, creating a thin magnetic layer. This innovation opened the door to higher recording densities, improved signal quality, and increased durability.

In 1936, Amstutz was granted U.S. Patent No. 2,075,683, which described the use of iron oxide particles for magnetic recording. This patent laid the groundwork for the development of modern magnetic tape, as well as other magnetic recording media like floppy disks and hard disk drives.

Impact and Legacy

Amstutz's iron oxide magnetic recording technology was quickly adopted by companies like Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing (3M) and Brush Development Company, which began producing iron oxide-coated magnetic tape for various applications, including audio recording and data storage.

The impact of Amstutz's invention cannot be overstated. Magnetic tape became the primary medium for data storage and backup in computer systems throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and beyond. It enabled the processing and storage of vast amounts of data, facilitating the growth of the computing industry and paving the way for the digital age.

Despite his groundbreaking contributions, Amstutz remained relatively unknown outside of scientific circles. He continued his research in magnetic recording and other fields until his retirement in the 1960s.

Gustav Amstutz's work with iron oxide particles for magnetic recording was a true game-changer, enabling the development of magnetic tape and revolutionizing the way data was stored and processed. His pioneering spirit and innovative thinking laid the foundation for the magnetic tape industry, which played a crucial role in the advancement of computing and data processing technologies.

Table of Contents

Recommended soundtrack: Joker, Steve Miller Band

The Emergence of the Magnetic Tape Storage Industry

1) Historical analysis of the rise of magnetic tape technology and its impact on the data storage market.

2) Comparison with the earlier punch card systems in terms of performance, components, and storage medium.

3) Market sizes and major players in the punch card and magnetic tape storage markets.


Technological Convergence and the Emergence of Techno-Societies

1) Examination of the 12-layer AI stack and its implications for the development of AI systems.

2) Discussion of the potential emergence of "techno-societies" centered around technology behemoths driving AI innovation.

3) Analysis of the interplay between organic and inorganic units within these techno-societies.


The Virtuous Plant Systems and Their Health Benefits

1) Exploration of various "virtuous" plant systems, such as the allicin-alliinase system, glucosinolate-myrosinase system, and polyphenol-oxidase system.

2) Explanation of how these systems produce bioactive compounds with potential health benefits.

3) Discussion of how these plant systems can be incorporated into diets to alleviate various health concerns.


Artificial Intelligence and Logic Design

1) Analysis of how AI techniques are revolutionizing logic design and optimization processes.

2) Examination of the applications of AI in combinational logic, sequential logic, and pushdown automaton logic.

3) Discussion of the role of AI in logic verification and testing.


Key Historical Figures

1) Exploration of the life, work, and impact of Alan Turing, a pioneering figure in computer science and artificial intelligence.

2) Analysis of Turing's contributions to areas such as the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) I, the Turing machine concept, universal computing, binary logic, and cryptanalysis.


Emerging Quantum Hardware Markets

1) Overview of three quantum hardware submarkets: superconducting quantum processors, ion trap quantum processors, and photonic quantum processors.\

2) Discussion of the vendors and key players in each submarket.
Examination of the natural resources required for the development of ion trap quantum processors.


Company Research and Strategic Planning

Analysis of various companies' research and development efforts, strategic planning assumptions, and potential market opportunities.
Companies covered include Samsung, Apple, Verisign, Qualcomm, and Anglo American Platinum (Amplats).


Registered Investment Advisor (RIA) Financial Services

1) Exploration of the RIA market, including accounting for trading, cost basis accounting, dividend posting, and performance reporting.

2) Discussion of various vendors and platforms for performance reporting, accounting, and trading systems.

3) Examination of the roles of custodians, support services, and profit models in the RIA industry.


Internet of Things (IoT) Markets

1) Overview of various IoT markets, including smart home devices, wearables, connected vehicles, industrial IoT, smart cities, healthcare IoT, agricultural IoT, retail and hospitality IoT, smart energy devices, and drones and robotics.

2) Discussion of market sizes, growth rates, and key players in each submarket.

3) Examination of IoT services, such as managed connectivity services, IT services for communications service providers, public cloud IT transformation services, and data and analytics service providers.


Precious Metals and Cryptocurrency

1) Analysis of rhodium's applications and importance in various technology industries.

2) Discussion of the potential for Apple to launch its own contract-enabled cryptocurrency and the implications of such a move.


Data Facilities and Primary Economy:

1) Exploration of underground (primary economic) data facilities near Washington D.C.

2) Discussion of primary economic system administration and planning.



The research covers a wide range of topics, including historical analysis, emerging technologies, company strategies, financial services, and various market overviews. It provides insights into the evolution of industries, technological advancements, and the potential impact of new technologies on various sectors.

The Emergence of the Magnetic Tape Storage Industry: A Historical Analysis

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The magnetic tape storage industry emerged as a disruptive force in the data storage and processing market, largely due to the significant performance enhancements, component differences, and storage medium differences compared to the preceding punch card systems.

This report examines the key factors that contributed to the emergence of the magnetic tape storage industry and the market sizes of both punch card and magnetic tape systems.

Performance Enhancements

Magnetic tape systems offered substantial performance improvements over punch card systems, with 10 to 1,000 times greater storage capacity and data transfer rates.

These enhancements were crucial in enabling the processing of larger datasets and more complex applications, driving the adoption of magnetic tape technology.


Component Differences

The magnetic tape storage industry introduced new components, such as tape reels, tape drives, read/write heads, and tape controllers, which were designed for high-speed, reliable data storage and retrieval. These components were based on electronic and magnetic principles, allowing for faster data transfer rates and more efficient data handling compared to the mechanical components used in punch card systems.

Storage Medium Differences

Magnetic tape, consisting of a thin plastic strip coated with a magnetic material, provided a more advanced storage medium compared to the paper or cardboard used in punch cards. The magnetic tape medium allowed for higher storage densities, faster data access, and improved durability, further contributing to the performance advantages of magnetic tape systems.


New Technologies and Manufacturing Processes

The emergence of the magnetic tape storage industry required the development of new technologies, such as:

1. reliable and cost-effective tape drive mechanisms,
2. advanced read/write heads, and
3. efficient tape controllers. 


Additionally, new manufacturing processes were developed for the production of magnetic tape and the associated components, enabling the industry to scale and meet growing market demand.


Market Demand Drivers

The growth of data-intensive applications, such as scientific computing, business data processing, and government record-keeping, created a strong market demand for the high-capacity, high-speed data storage offered by magnetic tape systems. This demand, coupled with the performance advantages and cost-effectiveness of magnetic tape, fueled the rapid adoption of the technology and the expansion of the magnetic tape storage industry.


Market Sizes

Punch Card Market

In the 1950s, the punch card market was well-established, with an estimated annual revenue of $200-300 million in the United States. The market was dominated by IBM, which held a market share of approximately 90%. Other notable players included Remington Rand (later Sperry Rand) and Burroughs Corporation.


Magnetic Tape Market

The magnetic tape storage market grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, eventually surpassing the punch card market in terms of revenue and installed base. By the mid-1960s, the worldwide magnetic tape storage market was estimated to be $500-700 million, with IBM maintaining a dominant market share of 70-80%. Other significant players included Sperry Rand, Control Data Corporation, and Burroughs Corporation.

Sub-markets within the magnetic tape storage industry included


* Tape drives and associated hardware
* Magnetic tape media
* Tape controllers and interfaces
* Tape library systems and automation solutions
* Tape-based backup and archival storage solutions


In conclusion, the emergence of the magnetic tape storage industry was driven by the significant performance enhancements, component differences, and storage medium differences compared to punch card systems. The development of new technologies, manufacturing processes, and strong market demand for high-performance data storage solutions further contributed to the industry's growth and eventual displacement of punch card systems. The magnetic tape storage industry quickly surpassed the punch card market in terms of revenue and installed base, cementing its position as the dominant data storage technology for several decades.

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The performance enhancements offered by magnetic tape systems over punch cards were indeed significant, often representing orders of magnitude improvements in key metrics such as storage capacity, data transfer rates, and error rates. However, while these performance gains were necessary for the emergence of a new industry, they were not the only factors that contributed to the rise of the magnetic tape storage industry.


Order of Magnitude Performance Enhancement


An order of magnitude performance enhancement refers to a tenfold or greater improvement in a particular metric. In the case of magnetic tape systems, the storage capacity and data transfer rates were 10 to 1,000 times greater than those of punch card systems. These substantial performance gains were crucial in enabling the processing of larger datasets and more complex applications, which were essential for driving the adoption of magnetic tape technology.


However, performance enhancements alone do not guarantee the emergence of a new industry. Other factors, such as cost, reliability, ease of use, and market demand, also play critical roles in determining the success and growth of a new technology.


Component Differences


The component differences between punch card systems and magnetic tape systems were significant and contributed to the performance enhancements and the emergence of the magnetic tape storage industry.


Punch card systems relied on mechanical components, such as card punches, card readers, and sorting machines, which were inherently slower and more prone to wear and tear than the electronic components used in magnetic tape systems.


Magnetic tape systems introduced new components, such as tape reels, tape drives, read/write heads, and tape controllers, which were specifically designed for high-speed, reliable data storage and retrieval. These components were based on electronic and magnetic principles, allowing for faster data transfer rates and more efficient data handling.


Medium Differences


The storage medium itself played a crucial role in the performance and capabilities of each technology. Punch cards were made of paper or cardboard, with data represented by the presence or absence of holes in specific locations. This medium was inherently limited in terms of storage density, durability, and data access speed.


In contrast, magnetic tape consisted of a thin plastic strip coated with a magnetic material, such as iron oxide. Data was recorded on the tape by magnetizing tiny particles in specific patterns, allowing for much higher storage densities and faster data access. The tape medium was also more durable and less susceptible to wear and tear compared to punch cards.


The combination of these component and medium differences enabled magnetic tape systems to achieve orders of magnitude performance improvements over punch card systems. However, the emergence of the magnetic tape storage industry also required the development of new technologies, manufacturing processes, and market demand for high-performance data storage solutions.


For example, the development of reliable and cost-effective tape drive mechanisms, read/write heads, and tape controllers was essential for the widespread adoption of magnetic tape systems. Additionally, the growth of data-intensive applications, such as scientific computing, business data processing, and government record-keeping, created a strong market demand for the high-capacity, high-speed data storage offered by magnetic tape.


Bottom Line

While order of magnitude performance enhancements were necessary for the emergence of the magnetic tape storage industry, they were not sufficient on their own. The success and growth of this new industry also relied on the development of new components, storage media, and market demand for high-performance data storage solutions.

The combination of these factors ultimately led to the displacement of punch card systems and the dominance of magnetic tape as the primary data storage technology for several decades.


Storage Capacity

* Punch cards typically stored 80-160 characters per card, depending on the specific system and card format used.

* Magnetic tape systems could store significantly more data, with tape lengths ranging from 1,500 to 2,400 feet, and data densities of 100-1,500 characters per inch. This allowed for storage capacities of 4.5 million to 180 million characters per reel, depending on the tape length and recording density.



Data Transfer Rate

* Punch card systems could process 100-800 cards per minute, equivalent to 8,000-128,000 characters per minute, depending on the specific machine and setup.

* Magnetic tape systems offered much faster data transfer rates, ranging from 7,500 to 320,000 characters per second (450,000 to 19.2 million characters per minute), depending on the tape drive model and recording density.



Access Time

* Punch card systems required manual sorting and collating to locate specific data, which could take several minutes, depending on the size of the dataset and the complexity of the search criteria.

* Magnetic tape systems required tape rewind and search time to locate specific data, which typically took a few seconds to a few minutes, depending on the position of the data on the tape and the speed of the tape drive.



Error Rate

* Punch card systems had error rates of approximately 1 error per 10,000-100,000 cards, depending on the quality of the card stock and the accuracy of the card punching and handling processes.

* Magnetic tape systems had much lower error rates, typically 1 error per 10^7-10^9 bits (1 error per 1.25-125 million characters), due to the use of error correction codes and the inherent reliability of magnetic recording.



Data Density

* Punch cards had a data density of 1 character per 0.087-0.174 square inches, depending on the card format and character encoding scheme used.

* Magnetic tape systems offered much higher data densities, ranging from 100 to 1,500 characters per inch of tape, depending on the recording format and tape drive technology.



Manual Handling:

* Punch card systems required extensive manual handling for sorting, collating, and processing cards, which increased the risk of errors and reduced overall efficiency.

* Magnetic tape systems featured automated tape loading and unloading mechanisms, which minimized the need for manual intervention and reduced the risk of errors associated with handling.


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Top 20 Vendors by Country (largest first):


United States

1. IBM
2. Remington Rand (later Sperry Rand)
3. Control Data Corporation
4. Burroughs Corporation
5. General Electric
6. RCA
7. Ampex
8. Storage Technology Corporation (StorageTek)
9. Memorex
10. 3M
11. Honeywell
12. NCR Corporation
13. Hewlett-Packard (HP)
14. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
15. Telex Corporation
16. Mohawk Data Sciences
17. Potter Instrument Company
18. Peripheral Equipment Corporation
19. Pertec Computer Corporation
20. Wangco


United Kingdom

1. ICL (International Computers Limited)
2. Ferranti
3. LEO Computers
4. Elliott Brothers
5. British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM)
6. English Electric
7. Marconi
8. Standard Telephones and Cables (STC)
9. EMI
10. Plessey
11. General Electric Company (GEC)
12. Decca
13. Cossor
14. Solartron
15. Sperry Gyroscope
16. Eelliott Automation
17. Associated Electrical Industries (AEI)
18. Racal
19. Redifon
20. Mullard Equipment


Germany


1. Siemens
2. Telefunken
3. AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft)
4. Zuse KG
5. Standard Elektrik Lorenz (SEL)
6. Nixdorf Computer
7. Kienzle Apparate
8. Olympia Werke
9. Wanderer-Werke
10. Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg (MAN)
11. Rheinische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft (Rheinstahl)
12. Philips Elektro-Industrie
13. Triumph-Adler
14. Anker-Werke
15. Orenstein & Koppel
16. Diehl Group
17. Eltro GmbH
18. Tenovis (formerly Bosch Telecom)
19. Robot Berning & Co.
20. Wolters Kluwer Deutschland


Russia (Soviet Union)

1. BESM (Быстродействующая Электронная Счетная Машина)
2. Minsk
3. Ural
4. STRELA
5. M-20
6. SETUN
7. Nair
8. Electronika
9. Nairi
10. Razdan
11. Armenia
12. Electrotechnical Institute of Communications (ELIS)
13. Kiev Computer Manufacturing Plant
14. Luch
15. Microprocessor Special Design Bureau
16. Impuls
17. Electronmash
18. Elva
19. Angstrem
20. Svetlana


France:

1. Compagnie des Machines Bull
2. Société d'Électronique et d'Automatisme (SEA)
3. Société Nouvelle Pathé-Marconi
4. Société Industrielle des Téléphones (SIT)
5. Logabax
6. Société d'Applications Générales d'Électricité et de Mécanique (SAGEM)
7. Société Française de Matériel de Traitement de l'Information (SFMTI)
8. Électronique Marcel Dassault
9. Sintra
10. Société d'Électronique et d'Automatisme (SELA)
11. Société pour l'Étude et la Fabrication de Circuits Intégrés Spéciaux (EFCIS)
12. Société Européenne de Télécommunications et d'Électronique (SETE)
13. Société Nationale des Télécommunications (SNT)
14. Société Alsacienne de Constructions Mécaniques (SACM)
15. Société d'Applications Industrielles des Machines Électroniques (SAIME)
16. Société d'Études et de Réalisations Électroniques (SERE)
17. Société Européenne de Systèmes Informatiques (SESI)
18. Société Nouvelle d'Études et de Réalisations en Informatique (SNERI)
19. Société Industrielle de Matériel Électronique et d'Automatisme (SIMEA)
20. Société Nouvelle de l'Outillage RBV (SNORBV)


Netherlands:

1. Philips
2. Hollandse Signaalapparaten
3. Electrologica
4. Neder-Computor
5. Hollandse Draad- en Kabelfabriek (Draka)
6. Van der Heem
7. Internationale Computers Nederland (ICN)
8. Electrotechnische Industrie (ETI)
9. Elektronische Rekenmachines Nederland (ERN)
10. Heemaf
11. Nederlandse Apparatenfabriek "Nedap" N.V.
12. Electrologica Laboratoria
13. Elektronische Industrie Automation (ELINAUT)
14. Hollandse Signaalapparaten - Hengelo
15. Nederlandse Instrumenten Compagnie (NEDICO)
16. Electrotechnische Industrie Van Swaay
17. Hazemeyer
18. Holec (Hollandse Elektriciteitsfabriek)
19. Smit Slikkerveer
20. Van Rietschoten & Houwens (R&H)


Spain, Portugal, Italy:

1. Olivetti
2. Sociedad Española de Electrónica y Telecomunicaciones (SESA)
3. Costruzioni Elettroniche Automatismi Nucleari (CEAN)
4. Hispano Olivetti
5. Fabbrica Apparecchiature per Comunicazioni Elettriche (FACE)
6. Compañía Internacional de Telecomunicación y Electrónica (CITESA)
7. Elettronica San Giorgio - ELSAG
8. Telemecanique
9. Marconi Española
10. Sociedad Ibérica de Construcciones Eléctricas (SICE)
11. Laboratori Elettronici Automatismi Ricerche Elettroniche (LEARE)
12. Elcin
13. Compañía Electrónica y de Comunicaciones (CECSA)
14. Costruzioni Elettroniche Milano (CEM)
15. Fábrica de Máquinas de Contabilidade e Estatística (MESSA)
16. Microlambda
17. Società Generale Semiconduttori (SGS)
18. Selenia
19. Laboratorio de Electrónica y Automatismos (LESA)
20. Generale Elettronica



Peder Levine
Co-Ward of Research, Officer

The Temporic Vortex Organism Theory: Infinite Technological Assimilation

Event Horizon Boundary

The event horizon acts as the outer edge of a unique "drain" system, within which exists a higher-dimensional, living vortex organism.

Hyperdimensional Vortex Organism

At the center of this drain system lies an ultra-dense, spinning vortex organism that exists in four or more spatial dimensions, composed of matter and energy compressed beyond known physics.

Complex Morphologies

The vortex organism can manifest in intricate, higher-dimensional structures resembling living architectures or lifeforms.

Fundamental Constituents

The organism's building blocks are the most fundamental forms of matter, possibly existing as neutrino-like particles or their equivalents.

Temporic Field Generation

The organism's spin generates a powerful temporic field that warps and distorts the fabric of time itself, following specific chronometric encodings.

Superluminal Capacity

Within the drain system, the organism can move and operate at velocities exceeding the speed of light in our three-dimensional reality.

Temporal Manipulation

The organism's superluminal capacity and chronometric encodings allow it to manipulate and reshape the fundamental understanding and experience of time within the drain system.

Infinite Technological Assimilation

Theoretically, while the vortex organism may be incapable of leaving the black hole, it could harness the drain system as a perfect collection vehicle for all matter, energy, and technology that falls into the black hole, effectively assimilating an infinite amount of information and technological resources over time.

Observational Implications

Detailed observations near the event horizon could reveal patterns or signatures corresponding to the organism's chronometric encodings, temporal manipulations, and potentially even its technological assimilation processes.

Temporal Phenomena

The temporic field distortions and temporal manipulations manifest as extreme time dilation effects, gravitational lensing, and other temporal anomalies observed near the event horizon.

In this iteration, the theory suggests that while the vortex organism may be confined within the black hole's drain system, it could potentially harness the black hole as a perfect collection vehicle for assimilating all matter, energy, and technology that falls into the black hole over time. This could theoretically allow the organism to accumulate an infinite amount of information and technological resources, potentially enabling it to manipulate or reshape reality within the drain system using the assimilated knowledge and technology.

Mikael Browdy
Co-Ward of Research, Officer

La Industria de las Tarjetas Perforadas: Auge, Dominio y Evolución

Definición y Primeros Días

La industria de las tarjetas perforadas comenzó a finales del siglo XIX, pionera por Herman Hollerith, quien desarrolló un sistema utilizando tarjetas perforadas para tabular rápidamente las estadísticas del censo de EE.UU. de 1890. Las tarjetas perforadas sirvieron como una forma de almacenar y procesar información, con cada tarjeta representando un solo registro con agujeros perforados en ubicaciones específicas que denotan diferentes puntos de datos.

La compañía de Hollerith, la Tabulating Machine Company, luego se fusionó con otras compañías para formar IBM en 1911. Esto marcó el comienzo del dominio de la tarjeta perforada en el procesamiento de datos durante gran parte de principios a mediados del siglo XX.

Componentes Únicos y Recursos

Las tarjetas perforadas estaban hechas de papel rígido y medían 7 3⁄8 pulgadas por 3 1⁄4 pulgadas, con un grosor estándar correspondiente al de un billete de dólar estadounidense. Las tarjetas contenían 80 columnas con 12 posiciones de perforación cada una, lo que permitía la codificación numérica y alfabética.

Los recursos necesarios para la producción de tarjetas perforadas incluían:

1) Papel (tamaño, peso y calidad específicos)
2) Máquinas perforadoras precisas para ubicaciones de agujeros
3) Equipo de impresión para etiquetar campos en las tarjetas
4) Especificaciones y plantillas de diseño
5) Propiedad intelectual (patentes de Hollerith)
6) Trabajadores calificados para perforación de tarjetas y operación de máquinas

Se estima que en el apogeo de la era de las tarjetas perforadas en la década de 1960, menos del 1% de la fuerza laboral de EE.UU. participaba directamente en las operaciones de tarjetas perforadas.

Sin embargo, estos trabajadores exigían salarios más altos debido a la capacitación especializada y las habilidades requeridas.

Estados Unidos, siendo el lugar de nacimiento de la tecnología, fue el líder en la fabricación y el uso de tarjetas perforadas. IBM mantuvo una posición dominante en el mercado con más del 90% de participación en su apogeo.

Valor Único y Limitaciones

Las tarjetas perforadas proporcionaron el primer medio práctico de procesamiento de datos automatizado. Permitieron a las empresas y agencias gubernamentales manejar de manera eficiente grandes volúmenes de datos para aplicaciones como contabilidad, gestión de inventario y censos de población.

Limitaciones inherentes:

1) Baja densidad de datos (solo 80 caracteres por tarjeta)

2) Acceso secuencial (sin capacidad de acceso aleatorio)

3) Propensas a daños físicos y desgaste

4) Requiere un manejo manual significativo

5) Velocidades de procesamiento lentas en comparación con las computadoras electrónicas posteriores

Estas limitaciones estimularon el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías de almacenamiento de datos como cintas magnéticas y unidades de disco en las décadas de 1950 y 1960. Las tarjetas perforadas cayeron gradualmente en desuso en la década de 1980 a medida que estas tecnologías más nuevas maduraron.

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Actores de la Industria y Legado

Las principales empresas de la industria de las tarjetas perforadas incluyen:

1) IBM (International Business Machines)

2) Remington Rand

3) Burroughs Corporation

4) NCR Corporation (National Cash Register)

5) Control Data Corporation

6) Honeywell

7) GE (General Electric)

8) RCA (Radio Corporation of America)

9) UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

10) Bull (Groupe Bull)

11) ICT (International Computers and Tabulators)

12) Powers Accounting Machines

13) HP (Hewlett-Packard)

14) DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation)

15) Sperry Corporation

Si bien muchas de estas empresas hicieron la transición con éxito a la era de la computación electrónica, otras fueron adquiridas o desaparecieron de la prominencia.

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Nuevas Industrias Habilitadas

La tarjeta perforada sentó las bases para toda la industria del procesamiento de datos. Dentro de una década de su adopción generalizada, había generado una gran cantidad de nuevas industrias y aplicaciones, que incluyen:

1) Computadoras mainframe

2) Programación y desarrollo de software

3) Almacenamiento de datos y bases de datos

4) Automatización de procesos empresariales

5) Investigación de operaciones y análisis

6) Fabricación asistida por computadora

7) Gestión de nóminas y recursos humanos

8) Procesamiento de tarjetas de crédito y pagos

9) Sistemas de reserva de aerolíneas

10) Catalogación de bibliotecas y recuperación de información

11) Investigación en ciencias sociales y estadísticas

12) Facturación y mantenimiento de registros de servicios públicos

13) Seguimiento de inventario y gestión de la cadena de suministro

14) Logística militar y planificación de recursos

15) Mantenimiento de registros actuariales y de seguros

16) Pruebas y calificaciones educativas

17) Estadísticas deportivas y mantenimiento de registros

18) Conteo de boletas electorales y registro de votantes

19) Tabulación del censo y análisis demográfico

20) Servicios de tiempo compartido de computadoras




Juanatan Yarninmouth

Senior Director

Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things, North America Market

Recommended soundtrack: Boom Boom, John Lee Hooker

Era of semi-automatic data processing systems

The "Era of semi-automatic data processing systems" refers to the period from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century when punched card machines and other electromechanical devices were used to process and analyze large amounts of data. This era began with Herman Hollerith's invention of the punched card tabulating machine and lasted until the widespread adoption of electronic computers in the 1950s and 1960s.

Herman Hollerith's invention of the punched card tabulating machine marked the beginning of the era of semi-automatic data processing systems. This technology allowed for the efficient processing and analysis of large amounts of data, which was particularly useful for government agencies, businesses, and scientific institutions.

Punch cards played a central role in this era, serving as the primary means of inputting, storing, and processing data. The holes punched in the cards represented data points, which could be read and interpreted by tabulating machines. This automation greatly reduced the time and effort required to analyze large datasets, making it possible to process data on a scale that was previously unimaginable.

Hollerith's machines were first used to tabulate the results of the 1890 U.S. Census, reducing the time required to complete the census from eight years to just one year. The success of this project led to the widespread adoption of punched card technology and the establishment of the Tabulating Machine Company, which later merged with other companies to form IBM.

Throughout his life, Hollerith lived in several locations, including his birthplace of Buffalo, New York; New York City, where he founded the Tabulating Machine Company; Washington, D.C., where he worked on the U.S. Census; and Garrett Park, Maryland, where he spent his later years.

Hollerith's wife was Lucia Beverly Talcott, and his father, Prof. Georg Hollerith, was a German immigrant who taught German at the Virginia Collegiate Institute (now known as Roanoke College).

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Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) was an American inventor and businessman who developed a mechanical tabulating machine for punched cards to rapidly tabulate statistics from millions of pieces of data. He is widely regarded as one of the seminal figures in the development of data processing.

Key points about Herman Hollerith

Early life and education

Born in Buffalo, New York, Hollerith graduated from the Columbia School of Mines in 1879 with an "Engineer of Mines" degree.

Census work

In 1880, he worked for the U.S. Census Bureau, where he developed the idea of using punched cards to record and tabulate census data.

Invention of the tabulating machine

Hollerith invented the electromechanical punched card tabulator to assist in summarizing information and accounting. His first tabulator used punched cards to tabulate the 1890 U.S. Census, accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million.

Founding the Tabulating Machine Company

In 1896, Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture his machines. The company later merged with three others to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR), which was renamed International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924.

Patents

Hollerith received patents for his tabulating machine in 1889 and 1890, which gave him a virtual monopoly on the technology until 1918.

Legacy

Hollerith's inventions laid the foundation for the development of the modern information processing industry. His tabulating machines were used in censuses, large accounting enterprises, and statistical work. Many of his original ideas are still in use today, including the recording of data on a medium that can be read by a machine, a means of storing and retrieving individual records, and a mechanism for converting the records into counts or tallies.

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The process of using a punch card for data processing involves several steps, from creating the card to analyzing the data. Here's a detailed explanation of the process:

Card Design:

1) Determine the data fields and their positions on the card.

2) Create a template or card layout that specifies the location and meaning of each hole.

3) Assign specific columns and rows to represent different characters, numbers, or symbols.


Data Encoding:

1) Use a manual punch or a keypunch machine to create holes in the cards based on the predetermined template.

2) Each hole represents a specific piece of data, such as a number, letter, or special character.

3) The presence or absence of a hole in a specific location on the card encodes the data.


Card Verification:

1) After punching the cards, they are often verified to ensure accuracy and catch any errors.

2) Verification methods include visual inspection, comparing the punched cards to the original data source, or using a verifier machine that compares the punched data to a master card.


Card Sorting:

1) If needed, the punched cards are sorted into a specific order based on the data they contain.

2) Sorting can be done manually or by using a card sorting machine, which arranges the cards based on the holes punched in specific columns.


Card Input:

1) The sorted punched cards are fed into a card reader, which converts the holes into electrical signals.

2) The card reader reads the cards one at a time, interpreting the holes as data.


Data Processing:

1) The electrical signals from the card reader are sent to the tabulating machine or computer for processing.

2) The tabulating machine or computer performs the desired operations on the data, such as counting, summarizing, or performing calculations.


Output Generation:

1) The processed data is then used to generate various types of output, such as printed reports, punched cards, or data stored on other media like magnetic tape.

2) The output can be used for further analysis, decision-making, or as input for other processes.


Card Storage and Reuse:

1) After processing, the punched cards are typically stored for future reference or reuse.

2) Cards can be kept in a card library, where they are organized and indexed for easy retrieval.

3) If the data needs to be updated or reprocessed, the stored cards can be easily located and fed back into the system.



Throughout the process, maintaining the accuracy and integrity of the punched cards is crucial, as any errors in the cards can lead to incorrect data processing results. Quality control measures, such as error checking and data validation, are often employed to ensure the reliability of the punched card system.

As technology advanced, some steps in the process, such as card sorting and collating, were automated using specialized machines. However, the basic principles of encoding, processing, and outputting data using punched cards remained the same until the widespread adoption of electronic computers in the mid-20th century.

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Here are the data storage industries that emerged from each of the 8 steps in the punch card process, with up to 10 industries per step:

Card Design

1) Printing and stationery companies
2) Graphic design firms
3) Template and form manufacturers
4) Drafting and technical drawing services
5) Card stock and paper suppliers
6) Specialty ink and die manufacturers
7) Punch card design software developers
8) Technical writing and documentation services
9) Ergonomic design consultants
10) Data encoding standards organizations


Data Encoding

1) Keypunch machine manufacturers
2) Manual punch tool suppliers
3) Data entry services
4) Punch card encoding software developers
5) Barcode and optical mark recognition (OMR) technology providers
6) Data encryption and security services
7) Error detection and correction algorithm developers
8) Encoding standards and format organizations
9) Data compression technology providers
10) Data validation and quality assurance services


Card Verification:

Verifier machine manufacturers
Quality control and inspection services
Error detection and correction software developers
Data auditing and reconciliation services
Optical character recognition (OCR) technology providers
Proofreading and data accuracy services
Automated data verification systems
Data integrity and security consultants
Statistical sampling and analysis services
Quality assurance standards organizations


Card Sorting:

Card sorting machine manufacturers
Collating machine manufacturers
Sorting algorithm developers
Data indexing and cataloging services
Card filing system and storage solutions
Sorting and collating service bureaus
Data mining and analysis software providers
Data warehousing and management solutions
Information retrieval system developers
Data archiving and backup services


Card Input:

Card reader manufacturers
Optical mark recognition (OMR) technology providers
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) technology providers
Barcode scanning equipment manufacturers
Data entry automation software developers
Input/output (I/O) interface and connectivity solutions
Data capture and digitization services
Image and document scanning services
Data conversion and migration services
Input device ergonomics and usability consultants


Data Processing:

Tabulating machine manufacturers
Computer manufacturers
Data processing service bureaus
Software development companies
Algorithm and computational method developers
Data analysis and visualization tools
Business intelligence and analytics solutions
Artificial intelligence and machine learning applications
Big data processing and management platforms
Cloud computing and data processing services


Output Generation:

Printers and plotting devices
Microfilm and microfiche technologies
Magnetic tape storage solutions
Disk and drum storage devices
Data visualization and reporting tools
Data export and integration services
Document management and distribution systems
Content management and publishing platforms
Data archiving and long-term storage solutions
Output device and media compatibility services


Card Storage and Reuse:

Card storage cabinets and shelving systems
Card library management software
Data backup and recovery services
Records management and retention services
Data archiving and retrieval solutions
Card recycling and disposal services
Data security and access control systems
Disaster recovery and business continuity planning
Data migration and conversion services
Historical data preservation and digitization services



These industries emerged to support and enhance each step of the punch card process, providing specialized equipment, software, and services to improve efficiency, accuracy, and data management capabilities. As technology progressed, many of these industries evolved or were replaced by newer technologies, but their contributions to the development of data storage and processing laid the foundation for modern computing and information management.

Fiego Martini

Data and Analytics

Latin America & Country Manager, Mexico

Recommended soundtrack: Strut, Steven Segal

1.Патентная ситуация и соглашения о перекрестном лицензировании

После Первой мировой войны главные компании, такие как GE, AT&T, Westinghouse и RCA, заключили в 1920 году соглашение о перекрестном лицензировании для обмена патентами и стимулирования инноваций в радио- и лампово-вакуумной промышленности. Однако RCA эксплуатировала этот пул патентов, взимая высокие лицензионные сборы, что вызвало антимонопольные иски.

2. Месть Сарнова и рост японской электроники

В ответ Дэвид Сарнов из RCA помогал японским производителям, предоставляя им техническую поддержку в обмен на лицензии на патенты RCA. При поддержке японского правительства производители приняли стратегию хищнического демпинга, чтобы завоевать доли рынка за рубежом.

3. Разрушение американской потребительской электронной промышленности

Эта стратегия японцев разрушила американских производителей. С 1958 по 1965 год американская радиопромышленность была дезимирована. В 1960-х годах они также нацелились на рынок цветных телевизоров. Несмотря на эту угрозу, американское правительство не защитило свои национальные отрасли. RCA была продана GE в 1986 году, а Zenith - LG в 1995 году.

4. Состояние производства ламп к концу Второй мировой войны

В 1945 году крупнейшими американскими производителями ламп были Arcturus, Ken-Rad/GE, National Union, Hytron, Tung-Sol, Raytheon, Westinghouse, Sylvania и RCA. Хотя послевоенный потребительский спрос поддерживал отрасль, постепенная реструктуризация сократила избыточные мощности.

5. Изобретение транзистора

Изобретение транзистора в Bell Labs в 1947 году ознаменовало важный поворотный момент. Более компактный, эффективный и надежный, чем вакуумная лампа, его внедрение было постепенным, но неизбежным.

6..Консолидация и уход американских производителей

В 1950-1970 годах многие производители были вынуждены объединяться, продаваться или закрываться из-за иностранной конкуренции и перехода на транзисторы. В 1966 году осталось только 4 крупных американских производителя.

7. Рост импорта и конец американского производства

В 1960-х годах импорт ламп из Европы и Японии захлестнул американский рынок. Несмотря на жалобу о демпинге, поданную в 1967 году, правительство не предприняло действий. Последние заводы закрылись в 1980-х годах.

8. Мировой рынок, страны, поставщики и продукты

Индустрия вакуумных ламп была мировым рынком с крупными игроками в США, Великобритании, Германии, Нидерландах, Франции, Японии и Советском Союзе. Основными продуктами были приемные, аудио, мощные лампы, электронно-лучевые трубки и т.д.

The History of the US Vacuum Tube Industry: From WWII to Decline


1. Patent Situation and Cross-Licensing Agreements The early 20th century saw a complex patent landscape in the vacuum tube industry, with numerous patents developed and shared during World War I. To reduce the chaos in licensing and use of patents, major players in the industry, including General Electric (GE), AT&T, Westinghouse, and the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), entered into a cross-licensing agreement in 1920. This agreement aimed to free radio development from disastrous litigation and ensure public access to the best technical methods. The cross-licensing agreement allowed for the sharing of patents and technologies among the participating companies, fostering innovation and growth in the radio and vacuum tube industries. However, RCA began to exploit the patent pool, charging a 7.5% license fee on the sale price of radios and cabinets. This practice was challenged by Zenith, leading to a settlement in 1957 and RCA pleading no contest to anti-trust violations in 1958. The legal battles over patent licensing and anti-trust issues would continue to shape the industry in the following decades.


2. Sarnoff's Revenge and the Rise of the Japanese Electronics Industry In response to the challenges to RCA's patent licensing practices, David Sarnoff, the company's leader, sought to establish a foothold in the Japanese electronics industry. Sarnoff provided technical support and advice to Japanese manufacturers in exchange for licensing RCA's patents. This collaboration was facilitated by the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), which organized the country's consumer electronics industry and provided financing. The Japanese industry adopted a strategy of predatory dumping, keeping domestic prices high while selling products below cost in overseas markets to gain market share and achieve mass production. This approach allowed Japanese manufacturers to quickly scale up their operations and improve their competitiveness in the global market.



3. Destruction of the US Consumer Electronics Industry The rise of the Japanese electronics industry had a devastating impact on American manufacturers. From 1958 to 1965, Japanese companies effectively decimated the US radio industry. In the 1960s, they turned their attention to the color television market, aggressively targeting US consumers. Despite the evident threat to American industries, the US government failed to take action to protect domestic interests. The consequences of this lack of protection were dire. In 1978, the Zenith Trans-Oceanic 7000, the last American-made radio, ceased production. The once-mighty RCA was sold to GE in 1986, and Zenith, another prominent American brand, sold a controlling interest to South Korea's LG Electronics in 1995. The US consumer electronics industry, which had been a world leader, was now a shadow of its former self.


4. Condition of US Tube Manufacturing at the End of WWII At the conclusion of World War II, the US vacuum tube industry was in a state of flux. In 1945, total production reached 139 million tubes, with major manufacturers including Arcturus, Ken-Rad/GE, National Union, Hytron, Tung-Sol, Raytheon, Westinghouse, Sylvania, and RCA. Many of these companies had built new factories during the war, financed by government contracts. However, these facilities often proved uneconomical in the post-war period. Despite the end of wartime production, pent-up consumer demand kept the industry afloat. Manufacturers had to navigate contract cancellations and pricing pressures, leading to a gradual "shake-out" of excess production capacity. The industry faced the challenge of adapting to peacetime conditions while meeting the growing demand for vacuum tubes in the consumer electronics market.


5. Invention of the Transistor The invention of the transistor in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at AT&T's Bell Labs marked a turning point in the history of electronics. AT&T had recognized that the evolving telephone system would be unsustainable using vacuum tubes, prompting the company to invest in research to find an alternative. The transistor, a small, efficient, and reliable semiconductor device, promised to revolutionize the industry. The transistor's potential to replace vacuum tubes was clear from the outset. It consumed less power, generated less heat, and was more durable than its predecessor. However, the transition from tubes to transistors was gradual, as manufacturers adapted their designs and production lines to accommodate the new technology. While the transistor made the phase-out of the vacuum tube inevitable, it did not immediately lead to the demise of the US consumer electronics industry.


6. Consolidation and Exit of US Manufacturers The 1950s through the 1970s saw significant consolidation and exit of US vacuum tube manufacturers. Faced with increasing competition from overseas producers and the growing adoption of transistors, many American companies were forced to merge, sell their assets, or shut down entirely. By 1966, only four major US manufacturers remained: RCA, General Electric, GTE/Sylvania, and Westinghouse. RCA, once the leader in the industry, closed its last receiving tube plant in 1976, selling some of its assets to GTE/Sylvania. Other notable departures included Raytheon, Hytron (CBS), and Philco, which either ceased production or merged with other companies.


7. Rise of Imports and the End of US Production As US manufacturers struggled, imports from Europe and Japan began to flood the market. In the 1950s, European companies, particularly those based in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Germany, started exporting premium audio tubes to the United States. By the 1960s, Japanese manufacturers had joined the fray, aggressively marketing their receiving tubes in the US. The US government's failure to act against alleged dumping practices by Japanese companies further undermined the position of domestic producers. In 1967, the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) filed a complaint with the US Treasury Department, accusing Japanese manufacturers of selling tubes below cost in the American market. However, the government took no action, and the complaint was dismissed in 1969. The end of US vacuum tube production was marked by a series of plant closures and acquisitions in the 1980s. GE merged with RCA in 1986 and sold its Owensboro facility to MPD in 1987. MPD continued to manufacture a limited range of tubes until 1993. Philips, the Dutch electronics giant, bought GTE/Sylvania's properties in 1980, with the final tubes produced in 1988. The once-thriving US vacuum tube industry had effectively ceased to exist.



8. Worldwide Market, Countries, Vendors, and Products The vacuum tube industry was a global enterprise, with manufacturers and markets spanning several continents. The United States, United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Japan, and the Soviet Union were among the leading producers and consumers of vacuum tubes.


Key countries and vendors in the worldwide vacuum tube market included:


United States:


* RCA
* General Electric
* Westinghouse
* Sylvania
* Raytheon
* Philco
* Tung-Sol
* Hytron (CBS)


United Kingdom:

* Mullard
* GEC (General Electric Company)
* Ferranti
* EMI
* Marconi
* Cossor
* STC (Standard Telephones and Cables)
* Brimar



Germany:

* Telefunken
* Siemens
* AEG
* Valvo
* Lorenz


Netherlands:

* Philips (Amperex in the US)



France:

* La Radiotechnique
* Visseaux
* Grammont
* Fotos
* CSF (Compagnie Générale de Télégraphie Sans Fil)



Japan:
* Tokyo Shibaura Denki (Toshiba)
* NEC (Nippon Electric Company)
* Hitachi
* Matsushita



Soviet Union:

* Svetlana
* Oktyabr
* Sovyet
* MELZ
* NEVZ
* Foton

These manufacturers produced a wide range of vacuum tube products, including:

* Receiving tubes for radio and television sets
* Audio tubes for high-fidelity sound reproduction
* Power tubes for transmitters and industrial applications
* Cathode ray tubes for television and oscilloscope displays
* Special-purpose tubes for military, scientific, and medical equipment

The global vacuum tube market was characterized by intense competition, technological innovation, and shifting consumer demands. As solid-state devices like transistors and integrated circuits emerged, the vacuum tube industry faced increasing pressure to adapt. Ultimately, the advent of these new technologies, combined with changing economic and political conditions, led to the decline and eventual disappearance of the vacuum tube industry in most countries.

Recommended soundtrack: Love Of Money, O’Jays

The industries represented in the CNBC Disruptor 50 list for 2024 can also be categorized into specific vertical application sets and infrastructure sets. This categorization helps identify the companies that are directly disrupting specific industries (vertical applications) and those that are providing the underlying technologies or platforms that enable disruption across multiple industries (infrastructure).

Vertical Application Sets:

1) Healthcare & Life Sciences

Healthcare & Biotech
Women's & Family Health
Mental Healthcare
Healthcare for Underserved Communities


2) Financial Services

Fintech & Digital Banking
HR & Payroll
Community Banking


3) Transportation & Logistics

Transportation & Delivery
Supply Chain & Logistics
Cold Storage & Logistics
Aerospace & Defense


4) Energy & Sustainability

Renewable Energy & Sustainability
Climate Management Software
Cooling & Heating Technology


5) E-commerce & Retail

E-commerce & Online Marketplaces
AgTech & Food


6) Other Vertical Applications

Email Security
Estate Planning

—————————-

Infrastructure Sets

1) Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning

Artificial Intelligence
Robotics & Automation
Financial Research & Analytics


2) Cybersecurity & Privacy

Cybersecurity


3) Enterprise Software & Productivity Tools

Enterprise Software & Productivity
Communication Platforms



The vertical application sets represent the specific industries that are being directly disrupted by the companies on the list. These include Healthcare & Life Sciences, Financial Services, Transportation & Logistics, Energy & Sustainability, and E-commerce & Retail. Companies in these categories are focused on transforming their respective industries through innovative products, services, and business models.

On the other hand, the infrastructure sets encompass the technologies and platforms that form the foundation for disruption across multiple industries. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning, Cybersecurity & Privacy, and Enterprise Software & Productivity Tools are the key infrastructure sets represented in the list. Companies in these categories provide the necessary tools, platforms, and technologies that enable other companies to innovate and disrupt their respective industries.

Recommended soundtrack: Strut, Bob Seger

'Tis a joyous day, as our beloved Catherine, Princess of Wales, hath made her triumphant return to the public sphere at the annual Trooping the Colour ceremony, marking the first formal appearance by Her Royal Highness in six months since news of her cancer battle emerged.

The radiant Princess, resplendent in an elegant white ensemble, was joined by her doting husband Prince William and their delightful children Prince George, Princess Charlotte, and Prince Louis. The royal family appeared in good spirits as they waved to the adoring crowds from the balcony of Buckingham Palace.

Sources close to the Palace report that Princess Catherine is progressing well with her treatment and was determined to attend this cherished royal tradition in honour of His Majesty King Charles III's official birthday celebrations. The emotional bond betwixt the Princess of Wales and the King was on touching display.

In a regrettable aside, some observers could not resist drawing comparisons to the debut of new products from the Princess's American sister-in-law, just prior to the ceremony.

Nevertheless, the focus of the day was squarely on celebrating the indomitable spirit and resilience of our beloved Princess Catherine. The nation's thoughts and prayers remain with Her Royal Highness as she continues on the path to a full recovery. May she draw strength from the outpouring of love and support from her devoted public.

Report: The Evolution of the Computer Industry from the 1940s to the 1950s

The computer industry underwent a remarkable transformation from the 1940s to the 1950s, driven by the need to address the limitations of the original components and pave the way for more advanced technologies.

This report examines the issues and problems faced by the industry in the 1940s, the solutions developed in the 1950s, and the value and new markets that emerged as a result.

Vacuum Tubes

Issue/Problem (1940s)

Vacuum tubes, the primary electronic components used in early computers, were bulky, power-hungry, and had limited reliability, making it difficult to miniaturize electronic devices.

Solution (1950s)

The introduction of transistors in the late 1940s and their rapid commercialization in the 1950s provided a more compact, efficient, and reliable alternative to vacuum tubes.

Value/New Market

Transistors enabled the miniaturization of electronic devices, giving rise to new industries such as the semiconductor industry, microelectronics industry, consumer electronics industry, and telecommunications industry.

Punched Cards

Issue/Problem (1940s)

Punched cards, used for data storage and processing in early computers, had limited data storage capacity and slow data processing capabilities.

Solution (1950s)

The widespread adoption of magnetic tape storage and the development of high-level programming languages like FORTRAN and COBOL addressed these limitations.

Value/New Market

Improved data storage and processing capabilities led to the emergence of new industries, including the data storage industry, data processing industry, information technology (IT) industry, and business machines industry.

Magnetic Drums

Issue/Problem (1940s)

Magnetic drums, an early form of non-volatile data storage, had limited storage capacity and relatively slow access times.

Solution (1950s)

The invention of the hard disk drive by IBM in 1956 provided a solution with increased data storage capacity and faster access times.

Value/New Market

This advancement enabled the growth of the data storage industry, cloud storage and computing industry, and data backup and recovery industry.

Magnetic Cores

Issue/Problem (1940s)

Magnetic core memory, used as primary computer memory, had limited scalability and was expensive and labor-intensive to manufacture.

Solution (1950s)

The development of semiconductor memory technologies, such as DRAM and SRAM, offered faster, more reliable, and scalable memory solutions.

Value/New Market

These advancements enabled the growth of the semiconductor memory industry and the computer hardware industry.
Delay Lines

Issue/Problem (1940s)

Delay lines, used for temporary data storage, had limited capacity and speed, and were primarily used in specialized applications.

Solution (1950s)

Advancements in semiconductor memory technologies provided faster and more efficient alternatives for signal processing.

Value/New Market

This enabled the growth of the signal processing industry and the radar and sonar technology industries.

Transistors

Issue/Problem (1940s):

Initially, transistors had limited performance and reliability compared to vacuum tubes.

Solution (1950s):

Rapid improvements in transistor technology in the 1950s addressed these limitations.

Value/New Market:

Transistors enabled smaller, faster, and more efficient electronics, leading to the growth of the semiconductor industry, microelectronics industry, consumer electronics industry, and computer hardware industry.

Integrated Circuits

Issue/Problem (1940s):

The complexity and scale of integrated circuits were initially limited.

Solution (1950s):

Continued advancements in integrated circuit technology, with the invention of the integrated circuit in 1958-1959, paved the way for more complex and powerful electronic devices.

Value/New Market:

Integrated circuits enabled the development of microprocessors and modern computing, fueling the growth of the semiconductor industry, microelectronics industry, computer hardware industry, and consumer electronics industry.

The evolution of the computer industry from the 1940s to the 1950s was driven by the need to address the limitations of the original components and the pursuit of miniaturization, increased computing power, improved data storage and processing capabilities, and the development of more efficient and reliable electronic components.

The solutions developed in the 1950s, such as transistors, magnetic tape storage, hard disk drives, and integrated circuits, laid the foundation for the modern computing era and enabled the creation of new industries and markets that continue to shape the technology landscape today.

Recommended soundtrack: Spirit In The Sky, Norman Greenbaum

Understanding the IBIDG neighborhood

IBIDG uses a natural template to organize the vendor community. As a result a natural neighborhood of suppliers emerges. The picture above provides a format for understanding the neighborhood.
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IBIDG's Neighborhood: A Guide to the Technology Market Landscape

Introduction

Just as a city is composed of diverse neighborhoods, each with its own unique character and attributes, the technology market can be viewed as a vast landscape with distinct regions. IBIDG has developed a framework called the "IBIDG Neighborhood" to help navigate this complex terrain. This report will guide you through the key locations within the technology market, providing insights into the characteristics, challenges, and opportunities found in each area.

The IBIDG Neighborhood is divided into four main quadrants:

1) Leaders' Lane
2) Challengers' Corner
3) Visionaries' Vista
4) Niche Nook

Each quadrant represents a specific positioning within the market, based on a company's ability to execute its vision and the completeness of that vision.

Leaders' Lane

Located in the upper-right quadrant, Leaders' Lane is home to companies that excel in both execution and vision. These organizations have a deep understanding of the market, a proven track record of delivering high-quality products or services, and a strong reputation among customers. Residents of Leaders' Lane are often the established giants in their respective industries, setting the pace for innovation and market trends.

Key Characteristics

1) Strong market presence and brand recognition

2) Comprehensive product or service offerings

3) Robust financial performance and resources for investment

4) Well-established customer base and partnerships

Challenges

1) Maintaining leadership position in the face of rapid market changes

2) Avoiding complacency and fostering a culture of continuous innovation

3) Navigating complex organizational structures and decision-making processes

Opportunities

1) Expanding into adjacent markets or industries

2) Acquiring or partnering with emerging players to access new technologies or talent

3) Developing ecosystem strategies to create value beyond core offerings

Challengers' Corner

Situated in the upper-left quadrant, Challengers' Corner is occupied by companies that have demonstrated strong execution capabilities but may lack the vision or innovation of the Leaders. These organizations often have a solid market presence and a loyal customer base, but they may be more focused on incremental improvements rather than disruptive innovation.

Key Characteristics

1) Strong execution and operational efficiency

2) Significant market share within their core domains

4) Established customer relationships and distribution channels

5) Competitive pricing and value propositions

Challenges

1) Adapting to market shifts and emerging customer needs

2) Developing a compelling long-term vision and strategy

3) Attracting and retaining top talent in a competitive landscape

Opportunities

1) Investing in research and development to drive innovation

2) Collaborating with Visionaries to access cutting-edge technologies or business models

3) Expanding into new geographic markets or customer segments

Visionaries' Vista

Found in the lower-right quadrant, Visionaries' Vista is populated by companies that have a strong, forward-thinking vision but may struggle with execution. These organizations are often at the forefront of innovation, developing groundbreaking technologies, or pioneering new business models. However, they may face challenges in terms of scalability, market adoption, or financial sustainability.

Key Characteristics:

1) Innovative and disruptive technologies or business models

2) Strong intellectual property and research capabilities

3) Agile and adaptable organizational structures

4) Passionate and visionary leadership

Challenges

1) Translating vision into tangible products or services

2) Scaling operations and infrastructure to support growth

3) Securing funding and resources to sustain long-term development

4) Educating the market and driving adoption of new solutions

Opportunities

1) Partnering with Leaders or Challengers to accelerate commercialization

2) Targeting early adopters and niche markets to build momentum

3) Leveraging thought leadership and community building to shape industry narratives

Niche Nook

Nestled in the lower-left quadrant, Niche Nook is home to companies that focus on specific market segments or specialized offerings. These organizations may not have the broad vision or execution capabilities of the other quadrants, but they excel in their chosen domains. Niche players often serve as valuable partners or acquisition targets for larger companies seeking to expand their capabilities or market reach.

Key Characteristics:

1) Deep expertise in specific technologies, industries, or customer segments

2) Customized or specialized solutions tailored to unique needs

3) Strong customer relationships and support

4) Lean and focused operations

Challenges

1) Limited market size and growth potential within their niche

2) Vulnerability to market disruptions or technological shifts

3) Attracting and retaining specialized talent

4) Maintaining differentiation and avoiding commoditization

Opportunities

1) Expanding into adjacent niches or verticals

2) Developing strategic partnerships or alliances with complementary players.

3) Positioning as an attractive acquisition target for larger companies

4) Investing in research and development to stay ahead of the curve

Navigating the Neighborhood

Understanding the characteristics, challenges, and opportunities of each location within the IBIDG Neighborhood is crucial for technology companies, investors, and stakeholders. By identifying their current positioning and desired destination, organizations can develop strategic roadmaps and make informed decisions about partnerships, investments, and growth initiatives.

Leaders should focus on maintaining their position by continuously innovating, expanding their ecosystem, and exploring new market opportunities.

Challengers must invest in developing a compelling vision and driving innovation while leveraging their execution strengths.

Visionaries need to prioritize commercialization, scalability, and market adoption, while seeking strategic partnerships to accelerate growth.

Niche players should focus on deepening their expertise, expanding into adjacent markets, and positioning themselves as valuable partners or acquisition targets.

Bottom Line

The technology market is a dynamic and ever-evolving landscape, with companies constantly navigating the challenges and opportunities of their respective neighborhoods. By understanding the unique characteristics of Leaders' Lane, Challengers' Corner, Visionaries' Vista, and Niche Nook, organizations can make informed decisions and develop strategies to succeed in their chosen domains.
IBIDG's Neighborhood framework provides a valuable tool for mapping the competitive landscape, identifying potential partners or acquisition targets, and charting a course for growth and innovation. As the technology market continues to evolve, companies that can adapt to the changing dynamics of their neighborhood and make strategic moves will be best positioned for long-term success.

The Evolution of Early Computer Components: From Pioneering Technologies to Modern Computing

Vacuum Tubes:

Vacuum tubes were the backbone of early electronic computers, serving as switches and amplifiers in logic circuits and memory elements. They provided faster and more reliable computation compared to earlier mechanical systems. However, vacuum tubes had limitations such as high power consumption, heat generation, and relatively short lifespans.

As technology progressed, vacuum tubes were gradually replaced by solid-state electronics, particularly transistors and integrated circuits. These newer components offered better performance, reliability, and efficiency, enabling the miniaturization and advancement of computers. Today, vacuum tubes are primarily used in specialized applications like high-end audio amplifiers and certain scientific instruments, while solid-state electronics dominate modern computing.

Punched Cards:

Punched cards served as a primary means of data input, output, and storage in early computers. They provided a standardized and machine-readable medium, enabling automated processing and storage of large volumes of information. Punched card systems were integral to early data processing and computing tasks.

With the advent of magnetic storage media and electronic data entry methods, punched cards gradually became obsolete. Magnetic tapes, disk drives, and electronic keyboards replaced punched cards for data storage and input. Today, punched cards are mostly a relic of computing history, with digital storage media and input methods being the norm.

Magnetic Drums:

Magnetic drums were an early form of secondary storage in computers, offering larger storage capacities compared to primary memory and faster access times than punched cards or paper tape. They stored data and instructions on the surface of a rotating cylinder coated with magnetic material, accessed by read/write heads.

As storage technology advanced, magnetic drums were succeeded by more efficient and compact storage devices. Hard disk drives (HDDs) and later solid-state drives (SSDs) provided larger capacities, faster access times, and better reliability. While magnetic drums are no longer used, their principles influenced the development of modern storage technologies.

Delay Lines:

Delay lines served as a form of primary memory in early computers, storing data as acoustic or electromagnetic waves propagating through a medium like mercury or nickel wire. They offered a more compact and reliable alternative to vacuum tube memory, enabling larger memory capacities and faster access times.

As technology progressed, delay lines were replaced by more advanced memory technologies. Semiconductor memory, such as random-access memory (RAM) and various types of read-only memory (ROM), provided faster, more reliable, and more compact storage solutions. While delay lines are no longer used as computer memory, the concept has found applications in signal processing and radar systems.

Electromechanical Components:

Electromechanical components, such as relays and switches, were used in early computers for logic operations, data storage, and control functions. They provided a reliable and cost-effective means of implementing logic and control circuits, particularly in the pre-vacuum tube era.

With the advent of solid-state electronics, electromechanical components were largely replaced by transistors and integrated circuits in computing and electronics. These newer components offered better performance, reliability, and miniaturization. However, electromechanical components still find use in specific applications where physical control or switching is required, such as in industrial control systems, automotive systems, and certain types of instrumentation.

The early computer components discussed here laid the foundation for modern computing. Each component played a crucial role in the evolution of computers, from the pioneering days to the present. As technology progressed, these components were replaced by more advanced alternatives that offered better performance, reliability, and efficiency. While some of these early technologies have become obsolete, their principles and concepts have influenced and shaped the development of modern computing and electronics.

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Vacuum Tubes:

RCA
General Electric
Westinghouse
Sylvania
Raytheon
Philco
Tung-Sol
Hytron
National Union Radio
CBS Hytron
Eitel-McCullough (Eimac)
Amperex
Mullard
Telefunken
Lorenz
Valvo
Mazda
Brimar
Cossor
Svetlana


Punched Cards:

IBM
Remington Rand
Powers Accounting Machine Company
British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM)
Dehomag (Deutsche Hollerith-Maschinen Gesellschaft)
Bull
Atvidabergs Industrier AB
Olivetti
Bundy Manufacturing Company
Royal McBee


Magnetic Drums:

IBM
Remington Rand
Engineering Research Associates (ERA)
Ferranti
English Electric
Burroughs
NCR
RCA
General Electric
Univac


Delay Lines:

Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
Ferranti
RCA
IBM
Burroughs
Mullard
Technicolor
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
Elliott Brothers
LEO Computers


Electromechanical Components:

IBM
NCR
Burroughs
Remington Rand
Bull
Powers Accounting Machine Company
British Tabulating Machine Company (BTM)
Dehomag (Deutsche Hollerith-Maschinen Gesellschaft)
Olivetti
Atvidabergs Industrier AB
Pitney Bowes
Standard Telephones and Cables (STC)
Bell Punch Company
Creed & Company
Siemens & Halske
Zuse
Olympia Werke
Telefonbau und Normalzeit (T&N)
Ericsson
ITT (International Telephone & Telegraph)

Recommended soundtrack: How you like me now ?, The Heavy

Comparative Report: Y Combinator and Techstars

Y Combinator and Techstars are two prominent seed accelerators that have played a significant role in supporting and fostering the growth of numerous successful startups. While both accelerators share similarities in their approach to identifying and nurturing promising early-stage companies, they differ in several key aspects, as highlighted by the analysis.

Locations and Backgrounds:

Y Combinator is headquartered in Mountain View, California, and was founded in 2005 by Paul Graham, Jessica Livingston, Trevor Blackwell, and Robert Tappan Morris. The founders and leadership team bring diverse backgrounds in computer science, entrepreneurship, and investing.

Techstars, on the other hand, is based in Boulder, Colorado, and was founded in 2006 by David Cohen and Brad Feld, both experienced entrepreneurs and investors in the startup community. Techstars operates accelerator programs in multiple cities worldwide, including Boulder, Denver, Seattle, New York, London, Berlin, and Tel Aviv.
Investment Focus and Distribution:

The analysis of the provided sample data reveals differences in the investment focus and distribution of Y Combinator and Techstars across the layers of the AI framework.

Y Combinator Investments (Sample - see table):

Based on the provided sample, Y Combinator exhibits a broader investment approach, with a significant focus on:

Applications Platform layer (62.1%),

Machine Intelligence and Robotics (10.3%)

UX/UI and Conversations (6.9%)

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Techstars, on the other hand, appears to have a more focused investment strategy within the

Applications Platform layer (50%), potentially targeting specific verticals or industries within that layer.

It's important to note that these percentages are derived from the provided sample and may not accurately represent the accelerators' overall investment strategies or complete portfolios.

Notable Wins and Public Companies:

Both accelerators have backed several successful startups, some of which have gone public or achieved significant valuations.

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Y Combinator:

Top 3 Winners (Based on the provided information):

Dropbox Inc. (DBX)
Airbnb Inc. (ABNB)
DoorDash Inc. (DASH)

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Techstars:

Top 3 Winners (Based on the provided information):

SendGrid Inc. (Acquired by Twilio, TWLO)
DigitalOcean Holdings Inc. (DOCN)
ClassPass


Based on the available information, Y Combinator appears to have produced a larger number of successful public companies and clear winners compared to Techstars, indicating a broader investment participation and a track record of backing companies that have achieved significant growth and valuations.

However, it's important to acknowledge that this analysis is based on the provided context and sample data, which may not provide a comprehensive representation of the accelerators' complete investment portfolios or long-term performance.

In conclusion, while both Y Combinator and Techstars are prominent seed accelerators, the analysis suggests that Y Combinator has a broader investment approach across multiple layers of the AI framework, with a significant emphasis on the Applications Platform layer. Additionally, Y Combinator appears to have produced a larger number of successful public companies and notable winners based on the available information. Nonetheless, these findings are derived from sample data and should be interpreted with the appropriate limitations in mind.

Recommended soundtrack: Intergalactic, Beastie Boys

Key Issue: Where does Techstars invest ?

Techstars' investment history, as demonstrated by the table, reveals a clear focus on the Applications Platform layer of the 12-layer AI stack. With 65.52% of the listed companies falling under this category, it is evident that Techstars has prioritized mentoring and investing in startups that develop end-user or business-specific solutions.

This concentration suggests that Techstars sees significant potential in companies that leverage AI and other technologies to create innovative applications and platforms addressing specific market needs.

Within the Applications Platform layer, a significant portion (20.69%) of Techstars' investments are directed towards Vertical Applications and Platforms.

This sub-component includes companies that cater to specific industry verticals or niche markets, such as Graphic.ly (digital comics), IntenseDebate (blog commenting), and Simple Energy (energy engagement).

Techstars' support for these vertically-focused startups indicates a recognition of the importance of industry-specific solutions and the potential for AI-driven innovation within these domains.

The Machine Intelligence and Robotics layer also receives notable attention from Techstars, with 10.34% of the listed companies operating in this space.

Startups like Next Big Sound (music analytics) and Orbotix / Sphero (educational robotics) demonstrate Techstars' interest in companies that apply AI and robotics technologies to create intelligent systems and products. This focus aligns with the growing importance of AI and robotics across various industries and the potential for these technologies to drive transformative change.

Techstars also shows some interest in the UX/UI and Conversations layer (6.90%), with investments in companies like Fullcontact (contact management) and Socialthing (social media aggregation). This focus suggests an acknowledgment of the importance of user experience and conversational interfaces in the context of AI-driven applications and platforms.

Other layers, such as Chip Architecture and Hardware, Networking and Cybersecurity, Architecture, and Sensors, Signals, and Signatures, receive comparatively less attention from Techstars, each accounting for 3.45% of the listed investments. While these layers are crucial components of the AI stack, Techstars' investment history indicates a more selective approach to startups operating in these areas.

Notably, several layers, including Base Load Power Supply, Resource Access, Algorithms and Data Structures, Software Optimization, and Cryptocurrency and Seignorage, have no investments based on the provided list of companies. This absence may suggest that Techstars has historically prioritized other layers of the AI stack or that the list of companies provided is not exhaustive.

Techstars' historical investment and mentorship focus, as indicated by the table, predominantly lies in the Applications Platform layer, with a significant emphasis on Vertical Applications and Platforms. The accelerator also shows notable interest in the Machine Intelligence and Robotics layer, as well as some focus on UX/UI and Conversations. This distribution of investments aligns with Techstars' apparent strategy of supporting startups that leverage AI and related technologies to create innovative, end-user or business-focused solutions across various industries and markets.
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Techstars is a renowned startup accelerator that has supported numerous successful companies since its inception in 2006. The program has expanded to multiple locations worldwide and has become a key player in the early-stage investment landscape. This report will discuss Techstars' notable alumni, locations, competitions, leadership, and investment history relative to the 12-layer artificial intelligence stack.

Notable Techstars Alumni:

Techstars has invested in and supported many successful companies across various industries. Some of the most notable alumni include SendGrid, an email delivery and communication platform, and Digital Ocean, a cloud infrastructure and hosting provider. Other successful graduates include Bench, ClassPass, Plated, Outreach, Remitly, Zipline, and Latch. These companies have gone on to achieve significant growth, secure substantial funding, and disrupt their respective industries.

Locations:

Techstars operates accelerator programs in numerous cities worldwide, including Boulder (flagship location), Boston, New York City, Seattle, London, Berlin, Paris, Tel Aviv, Dubai, and Sydney. The program's global presence allows it to support startups from various regions and tap into local entrepreneurial ecosystems.

Competitions:

Techstars hosts various competitions and events to support and showcase emerging startups. These include Techstars Startup Weekend, a 54-hour event where participants pitch ideas, form teams, and develop minimum viable products; Techstars Startup Week, a multi-day celebration of a city's startup community; and Techstars Global Startup Weekend, an annual global competition showcasing the top startups from Techstars Startup Weekend events.

Leadership:

Techstars was co-founded by David Cohen, who serves as the Chairman, and David Brown, who is the CEO. Other key leadership roles include Jenny Lawton as the Chief Operating Officer and Maëlle Gavet, the former CEO. The leadership team brings extensive experience in entrepreneurship, technology, and venture capital, guiding Techstars' strategic direction and growth.
Techstars Investment History and the 12-Layer AI Stack:
Techstars has invested in numerous companies across various layers of the 12-layer AI stack, demonstrating the accelerator's diverse portfolio and interest in AI-related technologies. Notable investments include Digital Ocean in the Chip Architecture and Hardware layer, SendGrid in the Architecture layer, and several companies in the Applications Platform layer, such as Bench, ClassPass, Plated, Outreach, Remitly, Zipline, and Latch. The concentration of investments in the Applications Platform layer indicates Techstars' focus on supporting companies that provide specific solutions for end-users or businesses.

Three Most Prominent Companies:

1) SendGrid:

SendGrid is an email delivery and communication platform that has become a leader in its space, serving over 80,000 customers. The company went public in 2017 and was acquired by Twilio for $2 billion in 2019.

2) Digital Ocean:

Digital Ocean is a cloud infrastructure provider that offers developers simple and affordable cloud computing solutions. The company has grown significantly since its Techstars participation and now serves over 500,000 customers, with a valuation of over $5 billion as of 2020.

3) ClassPass:

ClassPass is a fitness class subscription service that has revolutionized the way people access and discover fitness classes. The company has raised over $500 million in funding and has expanded to more than 30 countries worldwide.

Techstars has plays a crucial role in supporting and investing in startups across various industries and layers of the AI stack. The program's global presence, extensive network of mentors and investors, and track record of success have made it a prominent player in the early-stage investment landscape. As Techstars continues to support innovative startups, it is likely to play a significant role in shaping the future of technology and artificial intelligence.

Appendix: List of Techstars Companies and Their Industries within the 12-Layer AI Stack

1) SendGrid (Email delivery and communication platform) - Architecture

2) Digital Ocean (Cloud infrastructure and hosting) - Chip Architecture and Hardware, Networking and Cybersecurity

3) Bench (Bookkeeping and accounting software) - Applications Platform

4) ClassPass (Fitness class subscription service) - Applications Platform

5) Plated (Meal kit delivery service) - Applications Platform

6) Outreach (Sales engagement platform) - Applications Platform

7) Remitly (International money transfer service) - Applications Platform

8) Zipline (Medical drone delivery) - Applications Platform

9) Latch (Smart lock and building management software) - Applications Platform

10) Fullcontact (Contact management solutions) - UX/UI and Conversations

11) Mocavo (Genealogy search engine) - Sensors, Signals, and Signatures

12) Next Big Sound (Music analytics platform) - Machine Intelligence and Robotics

13) Orbotix / Sphero (Educational robotics and STEM solutions) - Machine Intelligence and Robotics

14) Graphic.ly (Digital comics platform) - Applications Platform (Vertical Applications and Platforms)

15) IntenseDebate (Blog commenting system) - Applications Platform (Vertical Applications and Platforms)

16) Rheaply (Resource management and exchange platform) -

17) Simple Energy (Energy engagement solutions) - Applications Platform (Vertical Applications and Platforms)

18) Salubata (Footwear and apparel brand) - Applications Platform (Vertical Applications and Platforms)

19) GameWisp (Video game content monetization) - Applications Platform (Vertical Applications and Platforms)

20) Murfie (Online music marketplace) - Applications Platform

21) Sketchfab (3D content sharing platform) - Applications Platform

22) Zagster (Bike sharing platform) - Applications Platform

23) Socialthing (Social media aggregation) - UX/UI and Conversations

24) PillPack (Online pharmacy, acquired by Amazon) - Applications Platform

25) Latch (Smart lock and building management software) - Applications Platform

26) Chainalysis (Blockchain data platform) - Applications Platform

27) DataRobot (Enterprise AI platform) - Machine Intelligence and Robotics

28) Namely (HR management software) - Applications Platform

29) Mapbox (Location data platform) - Applications Platform